The short elements that "connect" broadcast programming are called continuity. These include:

1. commercials
2. promotional announcements for other programs (promos)
3. public service announcements (PSAs)
4. news stories (sometimes considered programming in TV and all-news radio)

Copywriters today not only write for multiple media, but they often work for organizations geographically distant from their location. Some work freelance, but even copywriters for media companies often prepare copy that will be read/produced by people in other states or countries. Words flow freely on the "information superhighway."

Communication Model.

The communication model shown in Fig. 1.1 in your text describes the basic process of any type of communication. The basic elements are:

1. Sender- The person or organization which creates the message.

2. Encoding- The process of translating that messge so that it will flow efficiently through the selected medium or media. This process begins with the scriptwriter and is augmented by the producer, director, editor, etc.

3. Media- The channels of communication chosen to transmit the message to the ultimate consumer (the target audience). Often more than one medium is used, for example advertising campaigns usually involve radio, television and cable, and often print media as well.

4. Decoding- The way in which the receiver perceives the message, often called "media effects." This can be very different from the intent of the sender, as in a commercial which is humorous, but which leaves the receiver entertained while forgetting the product being advertised. Consumers process our messages through a frame of reference they have developed over a lifetime, and the better we define our target audience, the more likely we are to understand that frame of reference and use it to our advantage rather than have it work against us.

5. Receiver- While we may reach thousands or even millions of people through the electronic media, we communicate with individuals and we need to constantly try to view our work from the point of view of an individual member of our target audience.

1. Noise- This does not refer to a snowy TV picture or static on the radio, but rather factors in the environment or the receivers' frame of reference that interfers with the message being interpreted as the sender intended. Major news events are often sources of this noise.

2. Feedback- Any form of reverse communication that helps the sender understand how the receivers decoded the message. In the electronic media, care must be taken not to assign too much weight to the minimal feedback we are likely to get from angry phone calls, etc.

In the definition section of Chapter 1 the text correctly defines public service announcements (PSAs) as non-commercial announcements carried by broadcast stations for non-profit organizations. The term "without charge," however, is misleading. Today many PSAs are "sponsored" by corporations that pay to have them aired with a tag line identifying the underwriter. This can help a corporation improve its image by association with a popular social cause.

Broadcast Stations.

The 10,000 radio stations and 1,000 TV stations mentioned in the text only encompass the commercial stations. There are many more that are non-commercial, but still employ writers or carry programming conceived by writers.

Writing Principles.

1. While some talent is involved, anyone can become a better writer through study and practice.

2. Writing requires discipline. Professionals say there is nothing more intimidating than a blank computer screen. The best advice is to "just do it."

3. The writing process involves:

a. subject- the message
b. creativity- involves putting ideas together in new ways
c. style- involves encoding in a way that will move the receiver
d. format- is the form dictated by the producer

4. The only way to learn to write is to write!

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